Reason4Health Glossary
Content
Placebo effect
Sometimes people can feel an alleviation of their symptoms even when there is no real effect of a treatment. This alleviation of symptoms is mainly due to positive expectations. For example, people may take a headache medicine that does not have any active ingredients, but still feel less of a headache due to the expectation that the medicine is working.
If we want to find out if a drug is really effective or if its effectiveness is better explained by the placebo effect, it is necessary to conduct a study in which two groups are compared:
Experimental group → in this group, the subjects would receive a real drug that is supposed to improve their health condition
Placebo group → in this group, the test subjects would receive a fake drug (a drug that looks like the real one, but does not contain any active ingredients that can in any way really affect the health condition of the test subject).
If it turns out that the improvement of the health condition is the same in both groups, we can conclude that the effect of the drug can be explained by the placebo effect.
Nocebo effect
Similar to the placebo effect, the nocebo effect stems from certain expectations that people have about whether and how a drug works. But, unlike the placebo effect, which is associated with positive expectations, the nocebo effect is associated with negative expectations of treatment.
For example, if people are given a drug that has no active ingredients (a placebo), but are told that they may experience a severe headache as a side effect of the drug, they may actually experience it, even though there is no way the drug itself could cause it. We call this the nocebo effect.
Double-blind clinical study
A type of study in which neither the researcher nor the participant know whether the participant is assigned to a control (a group of subjects receiving a placebo treatment) or an experimental group (a group of subjects undergoing a specific treatment).
This design minimizes the experimenter effect that exists when the researcher behaves differently toward research participants who they know are in the experimental group. On the other hand, when the research participants do not know whether they received a real drug or a placebo substance, we can more easily distinguish between the placebo effect and the real effect of the treatment.
For example, we want to find out if vitamin C reduces the duration of colds. We will randomly divide the research participants into two groups - an experimental group, which receives vitamin C, and a placebo, which receives a sugar pill that we told them was vitamin C. If we find a difference in the duration of colds between these two groups, we can say that vitamin C really reduces the duration of colds. However, if there is no difference between the two groups, it means that the effect of vitamin C can probably be attributed to the placebo effect.
Open science
A movement in science that aims to make scientific research (including scientific articles, data, code for analysis) accessible to everyone (both other scientists and the general public). Access in itself does not make a study better or worse, but promotes rigor, transparency, collaboration, and accessibility in science. These values are important because they facilitate the application of scientific knowledge in practice and because they make future research easier to carry out and repeat, and also allow for checking the credibility of existing effects.
Pseudoscience
A system of explanations and claims that are presented as scientific, but which have not been arrived at through the proper, rigorous scientific method, or for which there is actually no reliable empirical evidence. Pseudoscience can be based on impossible premises or be the result of poorly conducted research. Pseudoscience often uses the authority of science (for example, relies on the use of scientific terms) but does not actually use the scientific method adequately.
Preregistration
Focus group
A scientific method in which an open group discussion is used to gather more information about a topic. The discussion is led by a moderator (usually a member of the research team) who has prepared topics to which he directs the participants, with the aim of gathering as much information as possible from them about the research subject. Focus groups usually consist of three to 12 participants, with one or two moderators.
Representative sample
A sample is a part of the population that participates in the research. For example, all participants in a psychological study constitute a sample. We consider the sample to be representative if it faithfully reflects all the characteristics of the population we are interested in. For example, if we want the subject of our investigation to be citizens of Serbia, in order for the sample that we use to be representative, it must have the same characteristics (in terms of gender, age, education, etc.) as the population of Serbia.
Experience sampling
A data-collection method that entails a structured diary where respondents report on behaviors, emotions, or experiences repeatedly over a certain period of time. For example, participants may report twice a day on what emotions they feel and do so for a month. In this way, the researchers get real-time data, and the recall bias that exists in the usual retrospective assessment through questionnaires is reduced.
Psychological measurement instruments (psychological tests)
Standardized measures of various psychological phenomena such as personality traits, intelligence, or indicators of mental health. Psychological instruments must meet various criteria, such as having good reliability and validity. Reliability refers to the consistency or the precision of measurements. We can talk about the precision of measurement through time (if we measure the same thing twice, we should get the same result), but also about the item-level precision of measurement (items of a test should accurately measure a certain psychological phenomenon). Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure (for example, we confirm that a test measures intelligence and not a personality trait). Psychological tests should also be sensitive enough to register different levels of presence of the phenomenon we are measuring (for example, distinguish between people who have high, medium or low levels of empathy). If the test includes an assessment by different evaluators, it is also important that it is objective, i.e. that the evaluation of certain characteristics that the test measures does not depend on the subjective assessment of the evaluator, but only on the presence of that characteristic.
Experiment
A scientific method/procedure that involves controlled testing of a hypothesis. An experiment involves two important variables - the independent variable (which is changed under controlled conditions in some way) and the dependent variable (which we monitor to see if changes in the independent variable are followed by the changes in the dependent variable). Most often, depending on the independent variable, the respondents are divided into two groups - control and experimental groups.
For example, a researcher is interested in whether people learn better with or without music and wants to test this through an experiment. In that case, the independent variable would be the presence of music, and the dependent variable would be the success of learning certain content. We would compare two groups of subjects - one who does not listen to music while studying and one who does, and then we would compare how successful both of those groups are in learning the content.
Personality
Permanent individual characteristics and behaviors that determine our unique adaptation to the environment. Most psychological findings indicate that there are about six to seven different broad personality traits that every person can be positioned on such as conscientiousness, extraversion, or honesty.
Irrational beliefs
Irrational beliefs are beliefs for which there is no valid empirical evidence or they are in contradiction with them and the criteria of normative rationality (that is, they are not a consequence of rational reasoning).
On the Reason4Health project, we deal with various irrational beliefs, such as: perception of patterns between unrelated phenomena, tolerance of belief inconsistency, superstition, social, personal and health-related irrational beliefs.
Perception of patterns between unrelated phenomena
Perception of a connection between phenomena that are unrelated, e.g. when we see the connection between knee pain and weather changes. Sometimes this perception of connections where they don't actually exist is called apophenia. One of the forms of apophenia is the perception of meaning in random visual stimuli, for example when we see a picture of a human face on the surface of Mars.
Tolerance of belief inconsistency
Simultaneous endorsement of mutually exclusive beliefs, for example when we believe that voting should be obligatory for everyone, while at the same time some people should be denied the right to vote.
Superstition
Belief in the existence of supernatural forces that influence events in the future or that can protect a person from negative influences, for example the belief that wearing a red thread around the wrist can protect us from spells.
Personal irrational beliefs
Rigid, extreme, illogical and unrealistic beliefs about oneself, others and the world, which are harmful to the well-being of the person who holds them. They are related to various unhealthy emotions and self-defeating behaviors and are the focus of change in rational-emotive and cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy.
They include beliefs such as, for example: It's terrible when a person has difficulties in life, or I have to be successful in things that are important to me and I don't accept failures.
Health-related irrational beliefs
A specific set of irrational beliefs related to health that are often rooted in magical beliefs, for example, the belief that disease is the result of an imbalance of energy flows or the belief that water should make up 70% of the matter we take in during the day because our body is 70% water.
Evidence-based medicine
An approach to health that is systematic, i.e. it implies the application of knowledge from scientific research in the treatment of patients. The goal is to use the currently best available empirical evidence when making decisions about individual patient treatment
Conventional medicine
An approach to health that involves treating symptoms with conventional therapies, such as drugs, surgery, or radiation therapy. Therapies used within conventional medicine have a high degree of effectiveness and safety. It overlaps a lot with evidence-based medicine. The difference is that in evidence-based medicine, the approach to health changes with the discovery of new evidence, while conventional medicine is somewhat more static, i.e. less subject to change. The healthcare system in Serbia is mostly based in practices of conventional medicine.
Hollistic approach to health
An approach to health that treats the person as a whole. This approach implies that, in addition to physical symptoms, various other factors (such as emotions or social factors) need to be taken into account when concluding about a person's general health. Physical symptoms are often seen as superficial indications that there is a problem on some other, deeper level (spiritual, energetic, emotional, etc.).
Traditional medicine (TM)
Health practices rooted in theories, beliefs, and experiences specific to a particular culture, that are used in the prevention, diagnosis, and improvement or treatment of physical or mental illnesses. Most often, they rely on the tradition of using particular health practices within a certain culture.
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)
A wide set of health methods and procedures that are not covered by conventional (official) and traditional medicine, and which are used with the aim of maintaining and improving health i.e. for prevention, diagnosis and treatment of physical and psychological diseases. These practices are used instead of conventional therapies (alternative medicine), or in addition to them (complementary medicine). Typical examples of CAM are homeopathy, quantum medicine, chiropractic, etc.
TCAM
The term we use to include traditional, complementary and alternative medicine. One can talk about TCAM products (remedies recommended to patients within traditional or complementary and alternative medicine), TCAM practices (therapeutic procedures within TCAM), or TCAM practitioners (individuals who apply TCAM in their work with patients).
Naturalness bias
The belief that something is good or true simply because it is natural.
For example, it can include the following beliefs:
"Everything that comes from nature can't hurt"
"A plant has grown for every disease"
Bias towards traditional
Believing that something is good or true because it is older or part of a tradition.
For example:
"The fact that something is traditionally used means that it is effective and safe"
"Acupuncture would not have been used for centuries if it was not effective"
Authority bias
The belief that something is true because it is supported by an authority, without other arguments.
For example, it can refer to the following belief:
"And Dr. X agrees with that, it must be true"
Popularity bias (argumentum ad populum)
Advocating that something is true because a lot of people support it.
For example, it can refer to the following beliefs:
"Millions of people cannot be wrong"
"There are chiropractors on every corner, it must be that their treatment works"
Post hoc fallacy
Assuming that one event caused another only because it preceeded it, without considering other possible explanations.
It includes, for example, the following beliefs:
"My aunt tried homeopathy and immediately felt better"
"After the vaccine, my hair started to fall out suddenly - the vaccine caused the hair loss"
Nirvana fallacy (perfection bias)
If something is not perfect, it is automatically worthless. Consists of comparing realistic, existing solutions to an ideal, unrealistic standard.
For example:
"There are people who got sick after vaccination, the vaccine is worthless"
"My aunt used to regularly use the strongest products to protect against UV radiation, but she still got melanoma, the products do not protect at all"
Confirmation bias
A tendency to seek and interpret evidence in accordance with preexisting beliefs, while ignoring evidence that contradicts said beliefs.
For example:
"I knew Ashwagandha works, since my friend started drinking it, she no longer has panic attacks."
"It's clear that the kinoki patches work, when they come off you can see the blackness from the toxins"
"Enough said about the “dangers” of smoking - my grandfather smoked two packs a day and lived to be ninety-two".
Omission bias
The belief that the harm that comes from not doing something is lesser than the harm coming from taking an action.
For example:
"It is safer for me to do nothing and not get vaccinated than to expose myself to the risk of the vaccine"
Teleological bias
Explaining biological phenomena and processes in terms of purpose and goal.
For example:
"Bacteria mutate to become resistant to antibiotics."
Belief bias
Determining the validity of an argument based on whether the conclusions are convincing to us, not based on whether they are logically sound. In the example below, the conclusion is logical because it follows from the premises, but it is not convincing to us because it is not empirically true.
"Everything that comes from nature can't hurt.
Asbestos comes from nature.
Conclusion: Asbestos can't hurt.”
Commitment bias
The tendency to remain faithful to earlier attitudes and beliefs, especially if we have publicly advocated them.
For example:
“New evidence might suggest otherwise, but I've always thought it's better to cook with oil rather than with fat, and I stand by it!"
Appeal to nature
It implies referring to the naturalness of certain practices in communication, emphasizing that these practices are necessarily good (effective, safe) only because they are natural.
Examples:
"THESE FOODS HAVE THE SAME EFFECT ON THE BODY AS GARLIC: Powerful health guardians from nature!"
"A magnificent root that nature gave us"
"Our interlocutor says that due to the covid pandemic, she sprays her protective mask daily with oil that contains all the plants that are the best known natural antiviral and antibacterial agents"
"Parsley stimulates the excretion of fluids from the body because it acts as a natural diuretic"
"Energy medicine is a completely natural and safe way of healing"
"There is a natural cure for everything, including yeast infections"
"Nature is our best ally when it comes to health - the same is true for the process of losing weight"
Appeal to tradition
Emphasizing that some practices are necessarily good (effective, safe) because they have been used traditionally for many years. Sometimes, communication appeals to the feeling of nostalgia and respect for the wisdom of the ancestors.
Examples:
"Our ancestors were treated with this powerful plant!"
"this natural remedy used by our grandmothers and great-grandmothers is back in fashion"
"It is known that our mothers and grandmothers often used brandy to lower children's high temperatures during colds"
"an old folk medicine that we all drank in our childhood"
"ancient recipe of our grandmothers"
"FOLK MEDICINE OVER 5000 YEARS OLD"
"this treatment is as old as the HUMAN RACE"
"Taking herbal and folk remedies that our ancestors used certainly helps"
"recipes have been handed down for generations, proven in practice to be very effective"
"Tested and approved by centuries of traditional use, the medicinal power of basil is represented by a huge number of medicinal effects"
"This folk remedy has been used for centuries in Russia, which speaks of its effectiveness"
"It is known that the ancient Egyptians, during the construction of the pyramids, often gave their slaves garlic to keep them in good condition"
"For centuries, our ancestors used whey as a medicine"
"Throughout history, our grandmothers grandmothers used whey as medicine and they were definitely not wrong"
"Ayurveda is the oldest medicine in the world"
"forgotten folk medicine"
Appeal to holism
It implies highlighting the holistic approach (i.e. viewing the person as a whole) of alternative practices. This emphasizes that alternative medicine (as opposed to conventional medicine) does not only deal with individual symptoms, but takes into account the person as a whole. It also implies that alternative medicine deals with the individual and not with the disease as such.
Examples:
"While drugs and medications work in a targeted manner, folk medicine helps to restore overall health to normal"
"This type of therapy represents a holistic therapy, which balances and makes us whole on all levels, i.e. it represents a complete balance of the physical body, emotions, mind and spirit. ... The emphasis here is on approaching a person as a whole being, and not only on physical symptoms that manifest as health problems."
"As one of the methods of a holistic approach, aromatherapy views a person as a whole being - mental, emotional, spiritual and physical and helps him on all four levels, aiming to solve the problem at the physical level at the root"
"Practicing yoga is a routine that has a beneficial effect on our entire body and inner being. ...We talk all the time about the system of the material body and the energy body that are not separated, that function as a whole and should be observed and nurtured that way."
"According to the beliefs of the Indians, a sick person suffers because of the disharmony between the spirit and the body. That is why the Indians fought to bring the patient back into balance and to treat the person first, not the disease itself."
Appeal to practicality
Emphasizing the accessibility and practicality of certain practices, as well as promoting these practices as requiring fewer resources (time, discomfort, money) than other approaches.
Examples:
"The most effective and at the same time the cheapest medicine for all those who have kidney problems is millet."
"you will not need thousands of euros, exotic trips and visits to different gurus, or check-ups in modern hospitals"
"Best of all, you only need three ingredients that you can get at any grocery store for this juice"
"All you need are two ingredients - water and salt"
"Preparation is quick and quite simple"
"IMPROVE DIGESTION WITH JUST ONE INGREDIENT YOU HAVE AT HOME"
"Make your own ointment from a plant that cures 100 diseases"
"Quick and easy - how to get rid of stress anywhere and at any time!"
"calendula cream is available without a prescription"
"pain goes away in a day"
"IF YOU'RE COUGHING AND YOU'VE GOT A RUNNY NOSE, TRY THIS FREE REMEDY: Relieves cold symptoms in minutes!"
"a drink that will rid you of phlegm overnight"
"in just 3 days, cleanse the body of salt"
"This syrup PREVENTS COUGH from the very first day of use"
Appeal to authority (scientific in particular)
It implies the abuse of a certain authority in order to promote some practice by referring to it. Most often it involves reference to scientific authority - for example, with vague references to supposed scientists or scientific studies that promote a particular practice, without providing the necessary additional information. Often the abuse of scientific authority involves the use of nonsensical pseudoscientific jargon, which relies on explanations that are vague, unclear or complicated, while using terms that are well defined in science.
Examples:
"It contains phytoncides, flavonoids and essential oils, which determine its bactericidal properties."
"Marjoram will adjust the body to increased absorption of positive energy."
"It helps our body become alkaline"
"leads to the balancing of the entire biochemistry of the organism"
"Quince is rich [...] in antioxidants that help our body absorb calcium and iron and fight free radicals that damage cells"
"As an exceptional antioxidant, aronia prevents the formation of free radicals and their "attack" on healthy cells in the body and blood plasma."
"Those biophotons are affected by the electromagnetic resonance of the crystal"
"Thanks to its glycosides procyanidins, flavonoids, rutin, tannin and vitamin C"
"Hypericin from this plant acts as an inhibitor of monoamine oxidase"
Social irrational beliefs
These beliefs form a large group of irrational beliefs concerning certain social circumstances and actors, as well as their relations (for example, they relate to the nature of knowledge acquisition, human existence, and society).
One common social irrational belief is the belief in conspiracy theories i.e. the belief that a group of individuals, who are generally perceived as very powerful, conspire and secretly control various events in order to achieve their own hidden interests.
Popular conspiracy theories include beliefs that people never landed on the moon, that Hitler died at a very old age in Argentina, that the purpose of vaccines is to chip people, that the goal of a secret world government is to reduce the number of people on Earth, and similar beliefs.